Iceland is known for its open landscapes, shaped by immense volcanoes and vast, almost unimaginable glaciers. Another important part of that landscape is the native birch, which forms the only naturally occurring woodland type in Iceland; it supports biodiversity, helps stabilise the soil, provides shelter from the wind, captures carbon and serves as a source of food. Birch is thought once to have covered 25-40% of Iceland's territory, but now covers only 1.5%. The reforestation project aims, working together with the Iceland Forest Service and private landowners Kári and Ragnheiður, to restore birch woodland roughly 120 km east of Reykjavík in Iceland's southern highlands, where natural succession could otherwise take centuries or even millennia.
The ecosystem
Iceland's foresters plant downy birch (Betula pubescens) as the dominant species, because it is an excellent pioneer that creates more favourable conditions for other native tree species to grow. Tea-leaved willow (Salix phylicifolia) is remarkably good at spreading naturally, so it makes up only a small share of the planting, used to create seed islands in places where the landscape has no willow. Aspen (Populus tremula) spreads on its own just as effectively. Rowan is another native species found in birch stands, but it survives far better if it is planted a few years after the others, once conditions have improved.
A history of forest loss
When Viking settlers arrived almost 1150 years ago, woodland covered 25-40% of Iceland. Historians and archaeologists believe that 95% of the deforestation was caused directly by the activities of those first settlers. It is estimated that between the end of the 9th century and the middle of the 20th, woodland cover fell to less than 1% of the total land area, possibly as low as 0.5%.
Huge areas of woodland on the island were felled by the first settlers, who used the timber for fuel, ships and houses, and cleared space for sheep pasture.
In recent decades a number of tree-planting projects have been launched and subsidies made available for afforestation. Native woodland currently covers about 1.5% of the country. The Icelandic government's goal is to raise that figure to 5% over the next 50 years.
Why is this ecosystem special?
Iceland's birch woods are unusual in being the only native woodland type found in the country. All other forests are made up of non-native species such as spruce and larch. The birch woods consist largely of downy birch alone. Diversity is added by rowan and tea-leaved willow, along with aspen – an extremely rare tree in Iceland, found in the wild in only six locations. The birches are not especially tall; only in the valleys do they reach heights of around 15 m. Towards the coast and in exposed places the birch woods give way to birch and willow stands, and at high elevations to willow tundra.
Birch is an important habitat for wildlife, particularly birds. It also matters as a means of capturing carbon and as a windbreak. Iceland is well known for its harsh winds, which, together with volcanic activity, are the cause of destructive sand and ash storms that sweep unhindered across much of the country. Birch can help stabilise the soil and act as a much-needed barrier against these storms.
Threats
Deforestation
When the first settlers reached Iceland, birch was felled for fuel, building materials and animal fodder. The most important forest product at the time was charcoal, which was needed for smelting iron and making iron tools. Woodland was also cleared to create fields and pasture for sheep, which were kept for wool and later for food.
Overgrazing
After the trees had been partly cleared, woodland areas continued to shrink because they were grazed too heavily by sheep, which could roam freely and browse on naturally growing birch. In Iceland it is the land manager's responsibility to keep sheep out of a given area by putting up a fence. Today the main cause of deforestation is the disruption of natural regeneration by livestock grazing.
Soil erosion
Iceland has been called the most eroded land in Europe, and possibly in the world. As woodland and vegetation disappeared, the soil was left exposed to the full force of Iceland's climate. Over time, many parts of the country have been left with poor soils containing few of the nutrients trees need in order to grow. Over the past century the Iceland Soil Conservation Service has put considerable effort into halting and reversing this trend.
Climate change
A worsening climate, volcanic eruptions and other forms of disturbance are sometimes cited as reasons for the decline in Iceland's woodland, but they do not explain the situation in full. Falling temperatures may have lowered the tree line, as the country's highest mountain areas became less hospitable to trees, but this does not explain the loss of birch in the lowlands. Natural disturbances such as volcanic eruptions are sporadic and confined to particular places, so they cannot account for deforestation across the whole country.
Skridhufell planting site
The planting site originally chosen for the project lay in the west of the country, in an area called Bakkakotsháls. Planting there was halted after a complaint was received: an access road was being rebuilt to the site and the trees would get in the way of the roadworks. Iceland has great respect for the interests of local people, which take priority even in matters affecting projects of national importance.
The Iceland Forest Service moved the project to another district, Skeiða- og Gnúpverjahreppur, in the south of the country. The planting site lies south of Selklettar mountain, next to the 240 m summit of Skridhufell. In 2023 the foresters also established planting on the opposite side of the valley. It is a picturesque area, with a river winding through it and a waterfall nearby. Arctic foxes and a variety of birds live here. The site also contains eroded soils and areas covered by lupin, an invasive plant that has spread rapidly in Iceland. Since lupin also has soil-improving properties and is the subject of debate in Iceland, the foresters have prepared an educational programme on this contentious question.
Future ambitions
Iceland's foresters have long-term plans to work on even larger forest restoration projects in the country. These could also include nature restoration measures, such as the large-scale wetland restoration project they are currently engaged in.
The areas in Iceland earmarked for wetland restoration are chosen carefully, taking account of various factors such as proximity to the sea, distance from the volcanically active zone, the fertility of the ecosystems, and whether large open areas are available. The project seeks to expand the country's existing network of protected areas; to that end, work is being carried out on extensive areas in southern Iceland that are already listed as nature reserves.
The project was successful at first in bringing landowners into wetland restoration, but later ran into a range of difficulties. Several projects are currently under way; it is estimated that in 2025 wetlands will be restored across roughly a thousand hectares of previously drained land. Support and advice on wetland restoration are available through Land and Forest Iceland. Before proposed projects go ahead, careful consideration is given to whether the project in question is eligible for funding. Yet despite the support available, it is not enough. Specialists point out that if Iceland wants to put more energy into wetland restoration, greater interest must be shown in these questions, and landowners must be encouraged to review how they use their land and to consider the scope for wetland restoration, whether the areas involved are large or small. The value lies in biodiversity, in plants and insects, and in creating healthy, resilient habitats capable of withstanding the threats that may come.
One current topic, for example, is the growth of sphagnum mosses in bogs. After drainage, the growth of these mosses tends to decline sharply, but they recover and spread considerably once the wetland is restored. Land and Forest Iceland believes that over the next couple of years wetlands will be restored across a far greater area in Iceland.