Forest use in the Middle Ages

Wooden enclosures

Both pigs and large livestock (cattle and horses) were driven to graze in the forest, creating woodland pastures, which clearly had negative consequences for the forests. Unlike pigs, which were able to leave the general structure of the forest intact, large livestock damaged the trees. Over-grazed forests soon turned into thickets.

Sheep and goat grazing in forests was particularly destructive. During goat grazing, older trees were often destroyed because goats were able to climb trees. For this reason, goat grazing in forests was prohibited in the earliest forest-related regulations. However, these bans were often ignored because, for the poorest strata of society, livestock—including sheep and goats—largely provided their livelihood.

Honey bee pastures

In the Middle Ages, beekeeping was one of the most important ways of using the forest, because until the 19th century, honey was the only available sweetener. For this reason, the right to engage in beekeeping was a matter decided by high-ranking individuals. Beekeeping issues are mentioned, for example, in connection with the Royal Forest of Nuremberg. Collecting honey helped to protect the forest. Lime trees, pussy willows (sallows, willows), spruce, and pine were most often used for honey production.

Forest ploughing

Forest ploughing (Waldfeldbau) was practised from the 11th century, and this process varied in different regions. This mentioned type of agriculture was introduced when the most fertile land had already been cultivated. This type of agricultural interim use (Zwischennutzung) had several variants, which are reflected in their names. The most common terms are Hackwald, Hauberge, Reutberge, Birkenberge, and Schiffelland.

In the period before the Industrial Revolution, the importance of this method of farming only grew. The work process was constantly improved, and a complex system of secondary forest use (Lohrinde) was developed, which also included issues of firewood supply and agriculture. For these purposes, trees were first burnt or felled. After the land had been worked with hoes or ploughs, rye, buckwheat, or wheat was sown in the cleared area.

Typically, a harvest could be obtained from such soil for about one year. After that, this land was converted into pasture, and tree stands regenerated from stumps or seeds. The described type of agriculture had a significant impact on the composition of forest tree species.

Resin collection

Resin collection is one of the oldest forms of forest use. Resin was collected from conifers, preferring spruce or pine. However, even this type of forest use caused significant damage: it hindered forest growth and weakened entire tree stands. For this reason, restrictions on resin collection were introduced, allowing it only in tree stands whose harvesting and transport would be difficult—namely, in places located far from rivers. As resin was a popular raw material, these restrictions were often ignored.

Firewood

Wood remains an important energy source even today. In Central Europe, firewood was replaced by coal in the 19th century. In the Middle Ages, forest wood was used for heating on both a local and wider scale. At the local level, there was only one indisputable necessity—firewood for heating. Firewood as an energy resource or raw material was also necessary for several manufacturing processes, such as charcoal production, glassmaking, salt production, mining, and the associated water-powered mills.

Charcoal production

Charcoal production took place in all forests. Forests closer to human settlements received more attention to avoid forest fires and to use only lower-quality wood. In forests further from populated areas, there were no such restrictions. Charcoal production mainly took place near small rivers and streams, which were used for transporting the charcoal. In the Middle Ages, charcoal kilns (Erdmeiler) were used exclusively for charcoal production.

Glass products

In the Middle Ages, glass was a highly valued and expensive material. Near glassworks in the forests, there were often small settlements where glassblower families lived. Glass production required an especially large amount of wood, which is why in modern research, glass production is often called a "wood-devouring" economic activity. Glass production also required charcoal burners and ash burners, who provided the fuel needed for glassmaking. 90% of the wood was used to make potash, which is the most important raw material for glass production, while the remaining 10% was used directly for melting the glass.

Salt extraction

In the late Middle Ages, most salt reserves were transferred to the ownership of regional aristocrats. This initiated the unrestricted extraction of this economically significant commodity. The salt extraction process required a lot of firewood for both tunnel construction and for the pans used to boil the salt and brine. The boiling pans consumed the majority of the firewood.

An example of how catastrophic salt extraction was for landscapes is Lüneburg, a city in northern Germany. Before the salt deposits were discovered, the city was surrounded by a dense forest, which was cleared due to the salt extraction process. Only heathland remained, a rural area that was further devastated by soil-depleting farming. In the 20th century, a large part of the territory to the southwest of Lüneburg became a British military training zone, thus causing even more damage.

Mines

Mining required three natural resources—firstly, ore; secondly, extensive forest to obtain pit props and wood for charcoal production; and thirdly, hydroelectric power from rivers and streams. The smelting of the extracted ore also took place in the vicinity of the mining shafts. Mining in the Harz mountains is mentioned as early as the 10th century. Since it required a great deal of wood, the necessary regulations were quickly considered, and by the end of the Middle Ages, the first taxes on forest use for mining purposes were introduced. Forests in mining regions gained a special status, and their primary use was very quickly strictly determined.

Timber and log driving

Construction timber became an export commodity to various parts of Europe a very, very long time ago. Written evidence has been found that demanded tree species, such as oak and conifers, were floated down rivers to the Baltic Sea in the 13th century. Yew wood was highly valued for its excellent properties; it possessed high flexural strength, which was particularly important in weapon manufacturing. To make bows, such as English longbows, entire yew plantations were felled in Austria. Carters disliked this tree species because their working horses sometimes died after eating the poisonous fruits of the yew.

Summary

Regarding the consequences of forest use after the end of the Middle Ages, it can be concluded that many continuous forest areas were largely destroyed in order to obtain firewood for heating by felling the trees. The impact of these activities was felt even in the most remote forest areas. Landscapes remained where the traces of damage are still visible, such as bare mountain ridges, peat bogs, and the current composition of tree species in European forests.

The irreversible shrinkage of forest areas led to soil erosion, which also affected land suitable for agriculture: it was for this very reason that people abandoned the affected areas. Erosion led to a shortage of resources, which was particularly felt during wartime. Given the destructive impact of excessive forest use, landowners introduced official regulations for the use of forest areas, an example being the Hohenlohe Forest Law of 1579.

Wood deficit

A wood deficit (Holznot) is an inevitable or already existing acute shortage of wood as a raw material, which has been an issue since the 16th century. Since coniferous forests naturally regenerate only with difficulty, successful attempts were made in the Middle Ages to plant conifers.

A large amount of wood was needed as an energy resource for both private households and early industrial production, such as glassmaking, leather tanning, soot production, and mining (for shaft support structures).

In the Black Forest, by tying together a large quantity of logs, rafts were created, which were then exported to the Netherlands, where the wood was needed for shipbuilding. Peasants overused forest resources for centuries by grazing livestock in forest pastures and obtaining straw. At the end of the 18th century, there were almost no forests left in Germany (information regarding deforestation). Over time, wood became such a rarity that in winter, fence posts, ladders, and other wooden objects that one could temporarily do without were burnt instead of firewood.

Present day

In modern Germany, hunters pay fees to the landowner where they wish to hunt in the forest. These costs are covered, including by using or selling the meat or hides of the culled animals. In Central Europe, deer hunting is particularly necessary due to the lack of large carnivores. Without human intervention, certain plant species would be destroyed due to selective grazing, which is already seriously endangering some species. Similarly, due to the high density of deer, it is difficult to implement ecological forest management, which is currently being applied not only to uniform stands but also to mixed-species forests. The relatively more fragile spruce often faces difficulties during the regeneration process in a large part of the locations where its stands were previously planted.

Typical types of commercial forests in Europe

Commercial forests today can be divided into different types, although due to the modern forestry industry, most people only think of harvest-age stands. The possible types are as follows:

• High forest (Kernwachs) with one layer of mature trees. [4]

— Even-aged forest

— Uneven-aged forest (Plenterwald)

• Coppice or young forest [4], or coppice forest

— Similar to felling areas (Hauwald [4]), an older method of forest use. Broadleaved trees were cut down to the stump, i.e., 30–50 centimetres from the ground, every 15–30 years. The wood was mainly used for heating or charcoal production. These broadleaved trees (lime and hazel) are capable of regrowing from the stump, and after 15 or more years, they can be cut again. Thus, with new shoots growing from the stump, the trees became bushy—with multiple stems from each stump. An example of such a felling area can still be seen today in Lindholz, Havelland Luch.

• Middle-aged forest with two layers [4], which is a transitional stage between high forest and young forest

• Pasture forest massif (Hutewald or Hudewald) or pasture forest, which is an old method of forest use, similar to forest farmland (Waldäcker) or forest fields, is a combined management method that combines elements of agriculture and forestry.

• One can also mention several now-obsolete methods of use, for example, stands similar to birch groves for bark extraction (Lohwald), which were characteristic only of certain regions.

*translation from German
Beginning: https://www.zemeunvalsts.lv/viduseiropas-mezu-vesture-vacijas-mezi-sakums-
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4. Zeno: Lexikoneintrag zu »Zeidelweide«. Pierer's Universal-Lexikon, Band 19. Altenburg 1865, ... Accessed on 5 August 2019.