Denmark was once covered by dense oak and beech forests, which were heavily felled during the Viking Age and in later centuries for shipbuilding, construction and the expansion of agricultural land. This shift from a forested nation to farmland is one of the most dramatic examples of environmental transformation in European history.
Timber, timber and more timber
Before people took up farming, forests covered almost 80–90% of Denmark's territory. The main tree species were oak and beech. During the Viking Age, between around AD 600 and ~1100, timber was the key strategic resource. It was needed to build warships. A single large Viking ship required 100–150 substantial oaks. Shipbuilders sought out especially curved branches and trunks to craft sturdy ribs and frames for the hull. Viking dwellings and farm buildings were built almost entirely from timber, with roofs often covered in reeds or turf. The massive circular ring fortresses of the period, such as Trelleborg, as well as everyday heating, also consumed large volumes of timber.
The Vikings were unrivalled masters of woodworking, who harvested and shaped timber without using saws, even though they were skilled at forging iron. Sawing weakened the wood fibres. Instead, they used a unique splitting technique: a freshly felled oak trunk was split lengthwise in half using wooden or iron wedges and heavy mallets. Each half was then split in half again, until 8, 16 or even 32 radial “pie-slice” segments were obtained, which were then hewn with special, broad working axes to produce remarkably smooth and flexible planks that were far more resistant to rot and breakage than sawn timber, because the wood's natural fibres remained intact. In shipbuilding, parts were joined with wooden pegs, usually of pine or juniper, and with iron fittings, while gaps were caulked with wool soaked in tar.
The Vikings' famous “castles” were in fact circular military fortresses. So far, a total of five such monumental timber-and-earth fortifications have been discovered in Denmark, which King Harald Bluetooth ordered built around AD 980. These fortresses are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In each fortress, timber houses were built to a single standard – boat-shaped, with curved walls roughly 30 metres long, made from vertical oak logs. The roof rested on external wooden posts, and the interior of each house was a single large room with a hearth at its centre, where soldiers could sleep, cook and repair weapons. Building one such fortress town required felling thousands of mature oaks.
Alongside the use of timber in construction, forests were burned and cleared to make way for grain fields and livestock pasture. Centuries of forest clearance for shipbuilding and farming eventually left Denmark with only about 2–3% forest cover by around 1800. The country faced an outright timber crisis and severe soil erosion.
The situation today and forest restoration
To remedy the situation, Denmark adopted a strict Forest Protection Act in 1805. King Christian VII issued a landmark law – the Fredskovsforordningen – which banned the conversion of forest land into farmland and required that any forest felled be replanted. Grazing livestock in forests was prohibited. Large-scale afforestation began, planting fast-growing conifer – mainly spruce – monocultures.
Danish forestry is now undergoing a historic shift away from intensive timber production towards large-scale nature conservation and biodiversity restoration, which the state generously compensates forest owners for. Today, the Danes are deliberately planting new forests.
The history of Denmark's forests is a classic example of how a country can recover from ecological disaster. Denmark successfully increased its forest cover through strict state regulation and subsidies. Spruce monocultures dominated in order to supply the timber industry with raw material. At the start of the 21st century, the country's strategy reversed by 180 degrees. “Close-to-nature forestry” was introduced, moving away from clear-felling and promoting mixed broadleaf forests dominated by beech and oak. Forests now cover about 14.1% of Denmark's territory, yet most of the country's land – more than 60% – is still used for intensive agriculture.
Danish timber industry – what it produces and what it buys
Denmark's timber industry is highly advanced technologically, but because domestic resources are insufficient, it relies heavily on imports and recycling. Denmark is world-renowned for top-quality designer furniture and solid-wood flooring – the brand Dinesen , for example, uses exclusive ash and oak timber. Local sawmills process domestically grown softwood, producing structural timber, window frames and doors. Denmark has undergone a sweeping shift from coal to biomass for electricity and heat production, so a large share of its timber is processed into energy. Denmark is one of Europe's largest exporters of Nordmann fir Christmas trees.
Overall, Denmark imports timber products worth roughly USD 2.44 billion a year. Its main import partners are Sweden, Germany, Estonia and Latvia. The Baltic states are critically important suppliers of sawn timber to the Danish market. The Danes import construction-grade sawn timber, mainly softwood from Scandinavia and the Baltics, wood pellets for energy, as well as pulp and paper products.
Denmark exports timber products worth roughly USD 1.03 billion, sending finished furniture, top-quality flooring, as well as recycled wood waste and wood chips mainly to Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Trends and nature conservation requirements
The priority for Danish forestry today is no longer maximum timber output, but rather CO₂ sequestration and biodiversity. The Danish government's goal is to phase out commercial forestry entirely across a large share of the country's forests, turning them into biodiversity reserves. Clear-felling no longer exists in state forests; the shift has been to selective felling, where trees are removed one at a time or in small groups, allowing the forest to regenerate naturally. By 2045, Denmark plans to convert around 10% of its agricultural land into new nature areas and forest in order to achieve climate neutrality.
Denmark's private forests
Private forest owners in Denmark are very well organised. Two large, long-established organisations dominate the sector, dividing the work between them – one handles political advocacy and lobbying, while the other provides practical forest management and business advice. Together they represent almost all of Denmark's private forests.
Dansk Skovforening – the Danish Forest Association...
...is the official trade association for the forestry sector and forest owners, founded in 1888. It functions primarily as a political advocate and lobbyist before the government and the European Union. Its members include private individuals, companies, churches, municipalities and large private foundations that own forest.
The organisation represents more than 60% of Denmark's private forest area. Its members' holdings are typically medium and large commercial forests. The organisation campaigns for forest owners' rights, tax relief and fair legislation. It is currently working actively on implementing the EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) and on national climate targets, and provides legal and economic support to its members. The Danish Forest Association publishes Denmark's leading forestry journal, Skoven.
Skovdyrkerne – the Danish Forest Growers' Association
...is a cooperative-type organisation founded in 1904, which primarily brings together small and medium-sized forest owners and farmers. Its main function is practical, commercial assistance with day-to-day forestry work. The association has around 5,000 members, meaning it brings together roughly 25% of Denmark's forest owners. Its members' forests together cover around 20% of Denmark's private forest area. Holdings vary widely – from 0.5 hectares to large properties of 1,000 hectares.
The association provides everything from tree planting and nature conservation planning to felling and timber sales. The cooperative pools its members' timber volumes centrally to secure better market prices, including for exports and for timber sold to Denmark's large energy plants. The organisation is divided into five regional branches and employs around 100 professional forestry advisors.
Current major projects and disputes
Both organisations are currently involved in ambitious national projects linked to Denmark's “Green Transition”. Under the LIFE4Forest project, the two organisations are working together to help private owners convert old spruce monocultures into climate-resilient, “close-to-nature” mixed forests. In connection with the recently approved government and European plan – a €626 million fund for converting agricultural land into forest – the associations are helping private owners prepare projects and apply for 100% state funding to plant new forest.
Dansk Skovforening is currently actively opposing efforts by some civil society organisations, as well as the Danish government, to further expand the public's right to roam and relax freely in private forests. 85% of private owners oppose this, as it interferes with forest management and the organisation of commercial hunting.
Compensation for forest owners
Since around 70% of Denmark's forests are owned by private individuals or foundations, the state offers very generous financial support programmes, backed by the European Commission. In 2025, Europe approved a Danish state aid programme worth €626 million. Farmers and landowners have 100% of the costs of tree planting and forest tending covered, and also receive compensation for lost agricultural income.
Denmark also offers compensation for ceasing economic activity. A €1.04 billion programme is currently in force, allowing forest and agricultural landowners to voluntarily “withdraw” land from production entirely, meaning they stop logging as well as the use of mineral fertilisers and pesticides. Owners receive ongoing financial compensation for the profit foregone from timber sales.
Denmark also has a Climate Forest Fund. This is a state-established fund that buys private land or pays owners to restore wetlands and plant forest for carbon sequestration.
Hunting in Denmark. Specifics and rights
In Denmark, hunting rights belong entirely to the land or forest owner, and have become one of the most lucrative secondary income sources for private forests. Unlike in Latvia, where hunting rights are often handed to local collectives for a largely symbolic fee, Denmark has a highly developed, commercial hunting lease market with strict rules.
A forest owner can choose to hunt themselves or lease the hunting rights to third parties. Hunting is leased to a specific individual or a small group of hunters, rather than to large collectives. The leaseholder acquires the right to hunt within a defined area. Leasing hunting grounds is quite expensive. Depending on the region and animal density, prices range from €20 to several hundred euros per hectare per year. Zealand, being closer to Copenhagen, and areas with large red deer populations command the highest prices.
To legally lease hunting rights to someone else, a property must be at least 5 hectares in size. If the owner wants to hunt themselves, there is no minimum area set by law, but safety distances from neighbouring buildings must be observed – at least 50 metres for shooting with a smooth-bore weapon, and 130 metres with a rifled one.
Organisations such as Skovdyrkerne offer their members standard lease agreement templates that protect the forest owner. These agreements typically include the following terms. Contracts are usually signed for one to five years. The law allows a maximum term of up to 30 years, but owners tend to avoid long contracts so they can adjust the price flexibly. Hunting activities must not interfere with forestry operations – the leaseholder, for example, may not damage young stands or disrupt logging work. Supplementary feeding of animals is strictly regulated. The leaseholder may only set up feeding stations with the owner's permission, so as not to attract too many ungulates, which then gnaw young saplings. Written approval is required to install hunting towers and blinds. The areas where vehicles may be driven are also specified.
The most common game throughout Denmark is roe deer. Spring stalking begins as early as 16 May. The numbers of red deer and fallow deer in the country have grown sharply in recent decades, especially in Jutland. These species command the highest lease value for hunting grounds, but also cause the greatest damage to young stands. Many forest and farmland owners specifically create ponds and so-called hunting coverts in order to organise profitable pheasant or duck shoots for larger groups.
Although forest owners profit from hunting leases, there is a constant clash of interests between them and hunters. Hunters want to see as many deer in the forest as possible, so that hunts are successful. For the forest owner, on the other hand, a large deer population means devastated young stands and financial losses. If damage caused by deer exceeds a critical threshold, the owner has the contractual right to require the leaseholder to intensify hunting in order to reduce the population.
Denmark has every opportunity to once again become a country of extensive forests after some time, as it was in ancient days.